<img class="r-stretch wide" src="ling_memes/linguist_dubstep.jpg" alt="linguistdubstep.jpg This image features a simple black-and-white line drawing set against a plain white background. Across the top half of the image is a horizontal row containing six cartoonish bird-like figures drawn with thick black outlines. From left to right, the first three figures are identical small birds facing toward the right. Each has a rounded body, a single dot for an eye near the front (right side) of its head, and two thin stick legs at the bottom. The fourth figure in the sequence is distinct from the others. It appears to be the same bird shape but stretched horizontally to be much wider and longer than the surrounding birds. Despite being elongated into a long rectangular shape with rounded ends, it retains a single dot eye near its right end and has legs positioned at the far left and far right corners of its bottom edge. The fifth and sixth figures return to the original small, round shape, identical to the first three birds in the row. Below this row of figures, centered on the page, is text written in a black sans-serif font. The text reads Linguist dubstep. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- ### About that other presentation software... - <img class="r-stretch tall" src="humorimg/doesnotsparkjoy.jpg" alt="doesnotsparkjoy.jpg The image contains a quote attributed to Marie Kondo. The background is a soft gradient of light blue shades, transitioning from a lighter hue at the top to a slightly darker shade towards the bottom. The text is written in a simple, sans-serif font and is colored in a teal or turquoise green. The quote reads: 'Discard everything that does not spark joy'... Marie Kondo. The ellipsis (... ) after joy suggests a pause for reflection on the meaning of the phrase. Below the quote, the name Marie Kondo appears in a smaller font size and is also in teal or turquoise green. There are no people depicted in this image; it focuses solely on the text message and its background color scheme. This description was generated automatically from image files by a local LLM, and thus, may not be fully accurate. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> - (I'm always chasing better learning outcomes. Oh well.) --- # Productivity in Morphology ### Dr. Will Styler - LIGN 120 --- ### Today's Plan - The Wide World of Words - Morphological Productivity - Productivity as Restriction - Productivity as Extension - Lexicalization --- # The Wide World of Words --- ### Languages have many, *many* words - The average adult speaker of a language knows 20,000-30,000 words - This is surprisingly hard to estimate! --- ### A big part of learning a language is learning the vocabulary! - These include function words - Pre/Postpositions, Determiners, Pronouns, Conjunctions) - As well as content words - Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs - These words range from very common ('the') to very uncommon ('decimate') --- ### Zipf's Law - "In a given corpus of natural language, the frequency of a word is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table" - *The most common words are **really** common!* - ... and the rarest words are super rare --- <img class="r-stretch wide" src="morphology/zipf2.jpg" alt="zipf2.jpg The image displays a line graph on a white background with faint gray grid lines. The vertical y-axis on the left is labeled COUNT and has numerical markers for 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250. The horizontal x-axis at the bottom is labeled word and lists a long sequence of specific words in small text running from left to right. A solid blue line represents the data. It begins near the top left corner at a count of roughly 250 and drops sharply downwards, curving to become nearly flat along the bottom axis as it moves to the right. This shape indicates that a few items have very high counts while most have very low counts. There are green text annotations overlaid on the graph to highlight specific data points. In the upper left area, corresponding to the highest part of the blue line, four words are stacked vertically: the, it, at, and which. These represent the most frequent words. In the upper right quadrant, there is a block of explanatory text that reads: We encounter some words very frequently, many more words somewhat infrequently, and there are many, many words that we might never encounter. In the lower right area, corresponding to the flat tail end of the blue line where word counts are near zero, four more words are stacked vertically: writing, steps, proceeded, and couldn't. These represent words that appear very rarely in the dataset. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- ### This is a double-edged sword - We don't need to know *that* many words to be functional day-to-day - **but** rare words are exceedingly rare --- ### We need to be able to interact with and understand unknown words! - Because we probably don't know all of the words - ... and even if we did, we need new words regularly! --- ### New words are commonly required - New concepts are regularly developed - New cultural or general concepts need marked - <img class="r-stretch wide" src="morphology/binge_watch.jpg" alt="bingewatch.jpg The image displays a line graph titled BINGE-WATCH. In the top left corner, there is a large red rectangular block containing the words BINGE-WATCH in bold, white capital letters with a black drop shadow effect. Below and to the right of this title is the main chart area on a white background. The horizontal axis at the bottom represents years, marked with labels for 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, and 2015. A blue line traces the data trend across these years. There are two white rectangular callout boxes with grey borders providing specific data points: The first box is located in the lower left area of the graph. It reads February 2005 at the top. Below that, a small blue square bullet point precedes the text binge watch: 2. This corresponds to the start of the blue line on the far left, which sits very low near the bottom axis. The second box is located in the upper right area of the graph. It reads January 2016 at the top. Below that, a small blue square bullet point precedes the text binge watch: 100. This corresponds to the highest point on the blue line near the far right edge of the chart. The trend of the blue line shows very little activity from 2005 through roughly 2013, staying almost flat along the bottom axis with only minor fluctuations. Starting around 2014, the line begins a steady upward climb. From late 2014 to early 2016, the line rises sharply and jaggedly, reaching its peak at the value of 100 in January 2016 before dipping slightly at the very end of the visible timeline. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- ### So, we need some way to be able to use and decipher new words! --- ### We've talked about many *morphological processes* - Affixation - Stem modification - Conversion - Reduplication --- ### To mark a meaning, the process is applied to a word - This could be inflectional - e.g. kot -> koti ('cat' -> 'cats' in Russian) - Or derivational - e.g. 'thick' -> 'thickness' --- ### Individual morphological processes don't apply to every word - Cuteness, but *quicklyness - English plural as 'cats', 'dogs', 'dishes', 'deer', 'oxen', 'foci' - *deers and *cat and *dishi and *dogen (as plural form) - Speakers know what forms apply to which words --- ## This is a glanch <img class="r-stretch small" src="img/object.jpg" alt="object.jpg The image displays a single, three-dimensional geometric object centered against a plain white background. The object is a regular dodecahedron, which is a polyhedron composed of twelve flat faces. Each face is shaped like a regular pentagon, meaning every side has five straight edges and five corners. The object appears to be made of metal with a gold or brass finish. The coloration is not uniform; instead, it features a mottled texture that mixes bright yellow-gold tones with darker, brownish-bronze hues. This gives the surface an aged or distressed metallic appearance rather than a perfectly smooth, polished look. The object is oriented so that one pentagonal face is prominently visible near the center of the image. Surrounding this central face are other pentagonal faces that angle away towards the edges of the frame. The edges where the faces meet are sharp and distinct, creating a rigid, angular structure. Lighting appears to come from the upper right, creating bright highlights along the top-right edges of the shape and casting slightly darker tones in the crevices between the faces, which emphasizes its three-dimensional depth. There is no text, diagrams, or people present in the image. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> - There are two ___? - An object that is a lot like this would be ___? - If you turn something into a glanch, you would ___ it? - Somebody who uses a glanch would be a ____? --- # Morphological Productivity --- ### Morphological Productivity - The degree to which a grammatical process is in use by speakers - Can we use this morphological pattern with a brand new base? --- ### Interesting questions in Productivity - What knowledge or abilities do speakers/listeners use to make/understand words they haven't heard before? - How can we characterize the productivity of a morphological process? - How do we know what processes *can* and *can't* work with a given word? - Is this word form learned as a monolithic whole, or as analyzable chunks? --- ### How do we describe productivity? - There are two approaches in common use - 1) *Assume patterns are general, and then discuss restrictions* - 2) *Assume patterns are local, and then discuss extensions* --- # Productivity as Restriction --- ### One approach: Assuming general patterns - "Let's assume that all morphological patterns are *unconstrained*, and then identify those unique places where it appears *constrained!*" - Identify the pattern, then describe when that pattern can't be extended to new forms - The **restrictions** dictate the productivity --- ### English *-ity* makes nouns from adjectives - Sparse -> Sparsity - Secure -> Security - Responsible -> Responsibility - Productive -> Productivity --- ### English *-ity* doesn't always work - Foolish -> *Foolishity - Sexy -> *Sexity - Peaceful -> *Peacefulity - ... but we have 'Foolishness', 'Sexiness', and 'Peacefulness' to carry the day - **-ity works with all adjectives except those ending in -ish, -y, or -ful** - This is its *productivity* --- ## Types of Restrictions on Productivity --- ### There are three kinds of restrictions often found with productivity - Phonological Restrictions - Semantic Restrictions - Morphological Restrictions --- ### Phonological Restrictions - The *form* of the base restricts the application of an affix - English patient noun -ee works in retiree and payee - ... but not with free -> \*freeee or accompany -> \*accompanyee - English verbal -ize works with **pri**vatize and **glo**balize - ... but not with cor**rupt** -> \*cor**ruptize** or se**cure** -> \*se**curize** --- ### Phonological Restrictions - These have no semantic or morphological basis, just simple rules *based on the form of the word!* - -ee only attaches to words without final /i/ - -ize only attaches when there would be an alternating rhythm --- ### Semantic Restrictions - The *meaning* of the base restricts the application of an affix - Russian "quality noun" affix -stvo only works with people-describing adjectives - bogatyj ‘rich’ -> bogatstvo ‘richness’ - znakomyj ‘acquainted’ -> znakomstvo ‘acquaintance’ - udaloj ‘bold’ -> udal’stvo ‘boldness’ - lukavyj ‘wily’ -> lukavstvo ‘cunning’ - vjalyj ‘withered’ -> *vjal’stvo - priemlemyj ‘acceptable’ -> *priemlemstvo --- ### Morphological Restrictions - The *grammatical or morphological nature* of the base restricts the application of an affix - The English -ee only attaches to verbs - Retire -> Retiree, but quickly -> \*quicklyee - The *-ando* progressive aspect in Spanish only attaches to '-ar' verbs - caminar -> caminando, but subir -> \*subiando --- # Productivity as Extension --- ### Alternative Approach: Assuming locality - "Let's assume that all morphological patterns are *constrained*, and then identify those unique places where it appears *to extend!*" - Identify the pattern, then describe what forms it extends to. - The **extent** dictates the productivity --- ### English *-ity* works best with some forms - "*English -ity is typically used to make nouns from adjectives ending in -able and -ive*" - responsible -> responsibility, productive -> productivity, available -> availability, payable -> payability - creative -> creativity, inclusive -> inclusivity, responsive -> responsivity - "*Sure, maybe it works with some other words, but that is where it's **always** productive*" - sparse -> sparsity, secure -> security, horrible -> ?horriblity --- ### There's often ambiguity here - There isn't always just one form --- <section data-background-color=#708cef></section> ### Something that tastes like almonds tastes... A: Almondy B: Almondish C: Almondtacular D: Almonderiffic E: of almond --- ### There's also sometimes competition - Especially when many morphemes are borrowed and the 'proper' form depends on the language - "Was this borrowed from Latin? Greek? Is this Germanic?" --- <section data-background-color=#708cef></section> ### This is an octopus. Now there are two of them. There are two... A: Octopus B: Octopuses C: Octopi D: Octopodes E: Hexadecapus --- ### Productivity is about patterns - We can ask these same questions for other patterns of morphological change - Stem modification, reduplication, and more - How often does this process occur for new words? - How regularly (and where) does it occur for existing words? --- ### We're very productive! - Humans are excellent at finding and extending patterns - **Let's give it a try** --- ### What do these memes have in common? Where do they differ? <img class="r-stretch small" src="morphology/babymeme1.jpg" alt="babymeme1.jpg The image is an internet meme featuring a young child in the center against a geometric background of blue and purple triangles. At the top, large white text with a black outline reads LATE TO WORK. The central figure is a toddler with light brown hair wearing a green shirt with white sleeves. He has a determined, smug expression on his face and is holding one fist up in a gesture of victory or determination. This character is widely known as the Success Kid meme. Below the child, matching large white text reads BOSS WAS EVEN LATER. In the bottom right corner, there is a small watermark that says quickmeme.com. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."><img class="r-stretch small" src="morphology/babymeme2.jpg" alt="babymeme2.jpg The image is a popular internet meme featuring a photograph of a toddler against a geometric background. The child has light brown hair and is wearing a green long-sleeved shirt with a white bib or top over it. He has a determined, triumphant expression on his face, squinting slightly with his lips pursed, and his right fist is clenched in a gesture of victory. The background behind the child consists of triangular shapes in varying shades of blue and purple, creating a starburst effect radiating from behind the child's head. The colors range from light lavender to deep navy blue. There is white text with a black outline overlaid on the image in two sections. At the top, it reads: DON'T KNOW A QUESTION ON A TEST. At the bottom, it reads: ANSWER IS IN ANOTHER QUESTION. In the very bottom right corner, there is small text that says quickmeme.com. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."><img class="r-stretch small" src="morphology/babymeme3.jpg" alt="babymeme3.jpg The image is a vertical meme featuring a popular internet character known as Success Kid. The background consists of geometric triangles in varying shades of blue and purple. At the top, white text with a black outline reads WENT TO ASK CRUSH FOR HER NUMBER. In the center is a photograph of a toddler with light brown hair wearing a green shirt with white shoulders. He has his right hand raised in a clenched fist near his chest, looking forward with a determined expression. Below him, more white text with a black outline reads SHE ASKED FOR MINE. On the right side, running vertically upwards, is the yellow logo text Memedroid. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- ### I made my own! - <img class="r-stretch wide" src="morphology/babymeme_wrong.jpg" alt="babymemewrong.jpg The image is a meme featuring a photograph of a young child centered against a background divided into four colored triangles. The child has light brown hair and is wearing a green shirt with white sleeves. He has a determined expression, pursing his lips slightly and holding his right hand up in a clenched fist near his chest. Above the child's head, there is white text with a black outline that reads DID GREAT ON TEST. Below the child, similar white text reads ALSO DID GREAT ON HOMEWORKS. The background behind the child consists of four triangular shapes radiating from the center. The top left triangle is light lavender. The top right triangle is a medium blue. The bottom left triangle is a darker slate blue. The bottom right triangle is a deep indigo or purple color. In the very bottom right corner, there is small white text that reads imgflip.com/meme-generator.net. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- <img class="r-stretch wide" src="morphology/babymeme_brian.jpg" alt="babymemebrian.jpg The image is a meme featuring a school portrait of a young man known on the internet as Bad Luck Brian. He has short, reddish-blonde hair and light skin. He is wearing a light blue collared shirt underneath a red sweater vest with a black and white plaid pattern. He has a wide, somewhat awkward smile that reveals dental braces on his teeth. The background behind him is a mottled purple, typical of studio photography backdrops. There is text overlaid on the image in large, white, capital letters with a black outline. At the top, it reads MAKES AWESOME MEME FOR LECTURE. At the bottom, it reads IT'S UNGRAMMATICAL. In the very bottom right corner, there is a small watermark that says memegenerator.net. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- ### Success Kid Memes <img class="r-stretch wide" src="morphology/babymeme_exp.jpg" alt="babymemeexp.jpg The image displays a split layout on a white background, likely serving as an educational explanation of a popular internet meme format. On the left side is a square graphic featuring the Success Kid meme character. This character is a toddler with light brown hair, wearing a green shirt over a white undershirt. He has a determined, slightly smug facial expression and is clenching his right fist in a gesture of victory or determination. The background behind the child consists of geometric shapes in varying shades of blue and purple. White text with a black outline appears at the top and bottom of this square image. The top text reads: LATE TO WORK The bottom text reads: BOSS WAS EVEN LATER In the very bottom right corner, there is small white text that says quickmeme.com. On the right side of the image, there are two red arrows pointing to the left, directing attention to specific parts of the meme. The top arrow points to the text LATE TO WORK. Next to this arrow is black explanatory text that reads: Either something that could 'go either way', or something that seems like a 'bad situation' The bottom arrow points to the text BOSS WAS EVEN LATER. Next to this arrow is black explanatory text that reads: 'Unexpected but completely positive outcome' This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- ### Bad Luck Brian has his own grammar <img class="r-stretch small" src="morphology/brian_1.jpg" alt="brian1.jpg The image displays a meme featuring a portrait of a young man against a mottled purple background, typical of a school yearbook photo. The young man has short reddish-blonde hair and light skin. He is wearing a light blue collared shirt underneath a red sweater vest that features a white and black plaid pattern. He has braces on his teeth and is smiling with an expression that appears slightly awkward or nervous, looking generally forward but not making direct eye contact. There is large white text with a black outline overlaid on the image. The text at the top reads MAKES EYE CONTACT WITH A GIRL. The text at the bottom reads MEDUSA. In the very bottom right corner, there is a small watermark that says memegenerator.net. This person is widely recognized as Brian Firkus, known online as the character Bad Luck Brian. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."><img class="r-stretch small" src="morphology/brian_2.jpg" alt="brian2.jpg The image is a meme featuring a photograph of a young man against a solid purple background. The young man has short reddish-blond hair and fair skin with visible freckles across his nose and cheeks. He is smiling broadly in an awkward manner, revealing teeth that have metal braces on them. He is wearing a light blue collared shirt underneath a red sweater vest with a black and white plaid pattern. There is white text overlaid on the image in a bold, sans-serif font with a black outline. The text at the top reads FINDS PILL OF IMMORTALITY. The text at the bottom reads CHOKES ON IT. In the bottom right corner, there is a small watermark that says memegenerator.net. This person is widely known as the internet meme character Bad Luck Brian. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."><img class="r-stretch small" src="morphology/brian_3.jpg" alt="brian3.jpg The image displays a popular internet meme featuring a photograph of a young man against a solid purple background, typical of a school yearbook photo. The subject is a teenage boy with short, reddish-blonde hair and fair skin. He has a wide, somewhat awkward smile that reveals braces on his upper teeth. He is dressed in a light blue collared shirt worn underneath a red sweater vest featuring a black and white plaid pattern. There are two blocks of text overlaid on the image in large, bold, white capital letters with thick black outlines for contrast. The text at the top reads DROPS THE BASS. The text at the bottom reads IT BREAKS. This specific photograph is widely known as the Bad Luck Brian meme. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- **Seeming success** -> **Unexpected twist of fate leaving the success hollow** <img class="r-stretch wide" src="morphology/brian_blank.jpg" alt="brianblank.jpg The image displays a head-and-shoulders studio portrait of a young man against a mottled purple background. The subject has short, reddish-blond hair and light skin. He is looking directly at the camera with a broad smile that reveals metal braces on his teeth. His eyes are light-colored. He is dressed in a light blue collared shirt worn underneath a red sweater vest. The vest features a plaid pattern consisting of intersecting white and dark lines. On the left side of the vest (viewer's right), there is a small, indistinct logo that resembles a polo player on a horse. The person in this photograph is Brian Fournier, who became widely known as an internet meme character named Bad Luck Brian. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- ### Many other memes have productive and unproductive domains - Keysmashing (asdf;lkj) - SpOngEBoB MemE! - <img class="r-stretch small" src="morphology/isthisa.jpg" alt="isthisa.jpg The image displays an animated scene featuring a young man with short black hair and bangs falling over his forehead. He is wearing rectangular glasses with dark frames. His expression appears to be one of mild surprise or wonder, as his mouth is slightly open and he is looking upward and to the right. He is dressed in a white shirt that has a red collar or scarf-like detail around the neck, revealing a yellow undershirt at the neckline. His left hand is raised in front of him with the palm facing up and fingers gently curved, as if he is reaching out toward something floating nearby. To his right, hovering in the air near his face, is a bright yellow butterfly. The butterfly has two large wings featuring white spots and thin antennae extending from its head. The background behind the character includes a window frame painted white or light grey. The panes of the window are dark, suggesting it might be night outside or that the room behind him is unlit. To the right of the window is a wall colored in a soft pinkish-peach tone. In the bottom right corner of the image, there is a blurry dark green shape that resembles the top of a bush or tree. There is no text or diagrams present in the image. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- <img class="r-stretch wide" src="ling_memes/is_this_language_acquisition.jpg" alt="isthislanguageacquisition.jpg This image is a meme created using a still frame from an animated television series. The visual style suggests it is from an anime produced in the 1980s or early 1990s. In the foreground on the left side stands a young man with short, dark hair and rectangular glasses. He has a light complexion and is wearing a white shirt with a red collar or scarf-like garment around his neck. His expression is one of mild confusion or inquiry, with his mouth slightly open. He is looking toward the right side of the frame. His left hand is raised in front of him, palm facing upward, gesturing toward an object in the air. To the right of the character's face, floating near a white window frame, is a yellow butterfly with two visible white spots on its upper wings. The background behind the character shows a window with dark panes, suggesting it might be evening or night outside. In the bottom right corner, there are blurry green shapes that appear to be trees or bushes outside the window. There are three distinct blocks of white text overlaid on the image: 1. The word Generativists is superimposed over the left side of the character's face and shoulder area. 2. Next to the yellow butterfly, the text reads Language processing centers in the brain. 3. At the very bottom of the image, spanning across the width, is a caption in quotation marks that reads: Is this the Language Acquisition Device? The character depicted is Yusaku Godai from the anime series Maison Ikkoku. This specific scene is widely known as the Is this the pigeon? meme template. In the original context of the show and the internet meme, the character mistakes a butterfly for a pigeon. Here, the text has been modified to reference linguistic theories regarding how humans acquire language. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> --- # Lexicalization and Fossilized Forms --- ### Sometimes, forms completely cease being productive - -en is no longer a productive plural for English - oxen, children, women, \*wugen, \*thoten - Ablaut is no longer a productive process - sit -> sat, sing -> sang, sting -> stung, ding -> \*dung, yeet -> \*yote --- ### A process which is no longer productive has been 'lexicalized' - We view 'children' as a quirk of 'child' - ... not as the expression of a working process - We view 'brethren' as a separate word - ... not as the plural of 'brother' - We consider `strong' (ablauted) verbs to be 'irregular' - ... rather than another way to make a past tense --- ### At this point, the affix is fossilized - You may find it in old words - Speakers may be vaguely aware of the affix - It's no longer active - It is lost to the language --- <section data-background="img/parchment.jpg"> <p>(This audiovisual content has been removed for compliance with recent federal accessibility guidelines. <a href="https://accessibility.ucsd.edu/policies-standards/ucsd-accessibility-guidelines.html">Please see this site for details.</a>)</p> <img class="r-stretch wide" src="img/onering.jpg" alt="onering.jpg The image displays a close-up view of a golden ring resting on an aged, textured surface that resembles an old map. The ring is the central focus and appears to be made of gold with a smooth, metallic finish. Inscribed around the entire circumference of the band is text written in a runic script known as Tengwar. This inscription glows with an intense, fiery orange and yellow light, making it stand out vividly against the darker gold of the metal itself. The ring rests on a brownish-tan surface that looks like parchment or heavy paper. The material has visible creases, folds, and wrinkles, giving it a rough, tactile appearance. Faint lines and symbols are drawn onto this map-like background, suggesting geographical features such as coastlines or paths, though these details become blurry and indistinct towards the edges of the frame. The lighting in the image is dramatic; the ring itself seems to emit light from its inscription, illuminating the immediate area around it while the surrounding background fades into shadow. This object is recognizable as the One Ring from J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> *... and some things that should not have been forgotten were lost. History became legend, legend became myth. And for two and a half thousand years, the morpheme passed out of all knowledge.* --- <section data-background="img/parchment.jpg"> <img class="r-stretch wide" src="img/smeagol.jpg" alt="smeagol.jpg The image displays a close-up shot of a man with long, dark brown hair that appears wet or matted against his face and neck. He has a pale complexion and is wearing a dark, earth-toned tunic or shirt. His facial expression is intense and strained; his eyes are squinted shut or nearly closed, and his mouth is wide open as if he is biting down on something with force. He is holding a small gold ring with both hands directly in front of his mouth. His fingers are curled around the band of the ring, bringing it right to his teeth. The background is out of focus but clearly shows a natural outdoor setting with green grass and trees, suggesting a forest environment. The lighting is soft and natural, highlighting the sweat or moisture on his face and hair. This character is Boromir, played by actor Sean Bean, from the movie The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. In this scene, he is succumbing to the temptation of the One Ring. This description was generated automatically. Please feel free to ask questions if you have further questions about the nature of the image or its meaning within the presentation."> *Until, when chance came, it ensnared another bearer.* --- ### ... but that's next week! --- ### Wrapping Up - There are a great many words, but we always need more - Some affixes are productive, available to use for new words - We can define productivity in terms of restriction, or extension - When a form completely ceases to be productive, it is *lexicalized* - ... until it is discovered once more --- ### For Next Time - Some fun data, then we'll get creative --- <huge>Thank you!</huge>