### Please visit office hours if you have questions! - IA office hours are often empty and sad! - If you don't 'get' phonology or IPA yet, go, let them help you - They have more datasets and they want to help! - Also check out the Video on the Bantu dataset - It's a good idea to review the lecture notes before sections --- # Morphology: How words are built ### Will Styler - LIGN 101 --- ### Today's Plan - What is morphology? - Types of morphemes - Types of words - Building new words --- # What is Morphology? --- ## Morphology - The study of the shape and formation of words --- ### Words are often not monolithic - They're often made of smaller components - These components are called '**morphemes**' - The smallest piece of a word which expresses a meaning or function --- ## How do we know that English has a past tense marker like -ed? --- ### Form-Meaning Correspondences - We can detect these components by looking for correspondences between form and meaning - "If the same meaning keeps showing up with the same form in a word, that chunk of form must carry meaning!" --- ### Forming English Plurals - /kæt/ vs /kæts/ - /sit/ vs. /sits/ - /pat/ vs. /pats/ - "Huh, it sure looks like words with -s at the end are plural. '-s' must be a meaningful chunk!" - These recurring chunks that seem to have meaning are **morphemes** --- ### Many words are composed of many morphemes - *... and each morpheme's meaning contributes to the word's meaning!* - played (play-ed) - play + past tense - blacken (black-en) - black + ‘cause to become’ - unroll (un-roll) - reverse of ‘roll’ - depressurization (de-pressure-ize-ation) - undo + pressure + verbalizer + nominalizer --- ### There are two kinds of morpheme - Bound, and Free Morphemes --- ### Free Morphemes - Can stand on their own, do not have to attach to some other form - Cat, Show, Class, Panda, Walk, Purple --- ### Bound Morphemes - Can’t stand on their own, must be attached to some other morpheme - -ed, -s, -ing, -er, un-, -aholic, cran- --- ### Bound Morphemes (or 'Affixes') - **Prefixes** - Go before the root - Re-do, Un-screw, Over-come - **Suffixes** - Go after the root - walk-ed, cat-s, end-ing - **Infixes** - Go inside the root - Khmer: leun ‘fast’ -> l-b-eun ‘speed’ - **Circumfixes** - Go to either side of the root - German: spielen 'to play' -> ge-spiel-t 'played' --- <img class="r-stretch" src="ling_memes/postmalone.jpg"> --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### -or in 'refrigerator' is an example of an... A) Prefix B) Suffix C) Infix D) Circumfix E) Bush-fix --- ### -or in 'refrigerator' is an example of an... A) Prefix B) <correct>Suffix</correct> C) Infix D) Circumfix E) Bush-fix --- ### So, those are morphemes - There are many, *many* kinds of morphemes - Accomplishing many tasks - ... and they're the building blocks of *words* --- # Words --- ### Words are made up of morphemes - Sometimes just one, sometimes many - We'll spend some time there later today - ... but once constructed, words have many different types --- ### Lexical Categories - Also known as "Parts of Speech" - The *types* of words which occur in language --- ### Lexical Categories - **Nouns**: bike, car, cat, dog, tofu, dude, bling - **Verbs:** go, eat, talk, walk - **Adjectives:** lit, sweet, hot, cool, awesome - **Adverbs:** well, fast, slowly, easily - **Pre/postpositions:** with, from, on, in --- ### Lexical Categories (continued) - **Determiners:** the, a, that, this, those - **Pronouns:** she, he, him, her, it, I, you, they - **Conjunctions:** and, or, whenever, while - **Numeral:** one, twice, third - **Interjection:** ouch, tsk, damnit! --- ### How do we identify the different parts of speech? - These generalizations will work for English, but similar ones are available --- ### Nouns - Describe a person, place or thing - Can be singular or plural - book/books or car/cars, but not quickly/ *quicklys and beg/ *begs - red/reds? - Can be paired with a determiner (e.g. "I like the/a...") - I like the book/car/cat/show - \*I like the angry/rotate/beg/quickly --- ### Verbs - Can take tense marking in English - He rotates, she rotated - He learns, she learned - *He angrys, *He angryed - Can work with modals - I will teach, but *I will angry. - I can run, but *I can laptop. --- ### Adjectives - Comparative Constructions - Happy/Happier, but *teacher/teacher - Angry/Angrier, but *cat/cater - Superlative Constructions - Mad/Maddest, but *commute/commutest - Purple/Purplest, but *penguin/penguinest - Very/too Constructions - Very bad, very angry, very purple, very ugly - *Very teach, *Very cat, *Very linguist --- ### There are always some exceptions - Words can be used as other categories - "Wow, that's so fly" - "You look very... linguist today" - "I can't adult right now" - Words that don't fit the pattern - *She looks much eleganter - *I cutted the bush - *Three sheeps ran across the path --- ### Adverbs are hard - "the most nebulous and puzzling of the traditional word classes” - (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik, 1985) - They can modify anything non-nominal -  --- ### There are many flavors of adverbs - **Temporal**: Now, then, yesterday, always, tomorrow, next week - **Locative**: Here, there, abroad - **Sentence**: Perhaps, fortunately, honestly, frankly - **Manner**: Quickly, carefully, excitedly, beautifully - **Linking**: Therefore, thus, consequently - **Degree**: Very, too, extremely --- ### Prepositions - Indicate a semantic relationship between other entities - "Any relationship a squirrel can have with a tree" - Under, around, on top of, behind, near, adjacent to, below, above, in, on... - These don't change form in English --- ### Postpositions - Many languages instead use **postpositions**, which go after the thing(s) they modify but function like prepositions. - English doesn't have postpositions, but Turkish does! Çocuk-lar **bahçe-de** oyn-uyor. Kid-PL garden-in play-ing (PROG). 'Kids are playing in the garden.'' - About [half of the languages in WALS](https://wals.info/feature/85A#2/16.3/152.9) use postpositions - Inpositions and circumpositions are a thing too --- ### Pronouns - Substitute for noun phrases - "I saw the gal who Kati noticed was carrying a hamster in her backpack" - "I saw **her**" --- ### There are many kinds of pronouns - Personal Pronouns - 1st Person (I, me, mine), 2nd person (You, Yours), 3rd (she/her/hers, he/him/his, them/them/theirs, and others) - Indefinite Pronouns - Someone, everybody, nobody, any, anything, something - Interrogative Pronouns - "You saw who/what where/when?" - Relative pronouns - "I saw the girl **who** knew the cat **that** ate the bird **which** I was watching." - Demonstrative pronouns - This, these, that, those --- ### Determiners - Determiners mark and precede nouns - **The/an** interesting book - **Those** cookies - **Which** movie did you see? - Determiners don't vary in form --- ### Types of Determiners - **Possessive**: My, your, her, our, his, its, their - **Demonstrative**: This, these, that, those - **Interrogative**: which, what, whose - **Definite**: the - **Indefinite**: a/an --- ### My favorite determiner joke --- > 'The' and 'a' walk into a bar. 'A' says, "Hey, what's up bro, I haven't seen you in ages. Are you still marking noun phrases?" 'The' replies "Definitely!" --- ### Conjunctions - Used to link expressions - Sunny **and** warm - Red **or** blue? - He rolled over **while** I was petting him. --- ### Let's practice a bit --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### "The [tiny] dog quickly scurried between the buildings" A) Noun B) Verb C) Adjective D) Preposition E) Adverb --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### "The tiny [dog] quickly scurried between the buildings" A) Noun B) Verb C) Adjective D) Preposition E) Adverb --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### "The tiny dog [quickly] scurried between the buildings" A) Noun B) Verb C) Adjective D) Preposition E) Adverb --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### "The tiny dog quickly [scurried] between the buildings" A) Noun B) Verb C) Adjective D) Preposition E) Adverb --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### "The tiny dog quickly scurried [between] the buildings" A) Noun B) Verb C) Adjective D) Preposition E) Adverb --- ### All languages have grammatical categories - Although the lines between them can be blurrier or cleaner - ... and some languages don't necessarily use all of them --- ### We can group these categories into larger sets - Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs are **content words** - A very large set of words, which express new meanings - Pre/Postpositions, Determiners, Pronouns, Conjunctions are **function words** - A small, finite set of words which help combine other words --- ### Content and Function words change differently in languages - We very rarely gain new **Function words** (Pre/Postpositions, Determiners, Pronouns, Conjunctions) - We often gain new **Content words** (Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs) - Function words are a **closed class**, and content words are an **open class** --- ### New function words are pretty rare - "I didn't see the last Transformers movie **because** Michael Bay" (new preposition) - "I spent last night in the library doing homework **slash** looking at pictures of cats" (new conjunction) --- ### New content words are really common - Bae (Noun) - Twerk (Verb) - Rekt (Adjective) - Totes (Adverb) - Yeet (Verb) --- ### Wait, how do you create a new word, anyways? --- # Creating New Words --- ### We have many ways to create new words - We'll talk about a few of the common ones here - Be thinking of examples of each kind --- ### Compounding existing words together - Low key/High Key - Subtly/Overtly - Down bad - Sad and in need of particular sorts of attention - Binge-watch - To watch a series all at once (to 'binge on' it) - Norwegian: *piggsvin* - *pigg* 'spike' and *svin* 'pig' - 'Hedgehog' - **What else?** --- ### Blending multiple words - Covidiot - Somebody who makes stupid choices while existing during the COVID-19 Pandemic (COVID+idiot) - Situationship - A poorly established romantic or sexual relationship (situation+relationship) - Frenemy - Somebody who is both a friend and an enemy - Mansplain - To condescendingly explain something (from Man+Explain) - Skoden - 'Let's go then' - **What else?** --- <img class="r-stretch" src="humorimg/drog.jpg"> --- ### Borrowing words from other languages - Pupusa - From Nawat, via Spanish - Croissant - From French - Uber-cute - From German - Kawaii - From Japanese - Chocolate - From Nahuatl, 'xocolātl', bitter water - **What else?** --- ### Clipping existing words - Fam - From "Family" - Pog/Poggers - From the Twitch "Pogchamp" emote - Bougie/Boujee - Clipped from "bourgeois/bourgeoisie" - Drip - From "dripping" - He caught an L - From "Loss" - **What else?** --- ### Changing the part of speech of an existing word - She's super **woke**, she'll want to help - Verb -> adjective (or maybe clipped from "awoken"?) - I'm staying home **because** lazy - Conjunction -> Preposition - "I don't want to **adult** today" or "I forgot how to **Linguist** for a minute there" - Noun -> Verb - "I **stan** Joan Bybee" - Name (Noun) -> Verb - "I can't **even**" - Adverb -> Verb --- <img class="r-stretch" src="humorimg/youcaneven.jpg"> --- ### Other part of speech conversions? - English is really good at these! --- ### Creating Acronyms - *Acronyms are pronounceable!* - Wifi - 'Wireless Fidelity' - GOAT - 'Greatest of all time' - NASA - 'National Aeronautics and Space Administration' - WAP - 'Wireless Application Protocol' - **What else?** --- ### Creating Initialisms - *Initialisms are pronounced as a series of letters* - UCSD - University of California San Diego - UCB - University of California at Berkeley - FBI - Federal Bureau of Investigation - IPA - International Phonetic Alphabet - Or India Pale Ale, to some weirdos - **What else?** --- ### Making up brand new words! - Bling - doggo - dongle - uwu - hodl - **What else?** --- ### Creating new senses for existing words - thick/thicc - Wide on one dimension / Aesthetically Ample - Cancelled/cancel - Cancelled series, or cancelled celebrity - Turnt/Rekt - New senses coming with new spellings - Cringe - A facial gesture or my sense of humor - Flex (on somebody) - To bend, or to show off one's skills/possessions/means - **What else?** --- ### A single spoken word can have *many* senses - Bank (of a river), bank (of America), bank (of a poker game), bank (shot in pool)... - This is called *polysemy* and we'll talk about this a lot down the road! --- ### Word creation methods - Compounding - Blending - Borrowing from other languages - Changing the part of speech - Clipping - Acronyms and Initialism - Making it up - Changing the meaning --- ### We can create affixes too - e- - eSports, email, eharmony, e-registration, e-conference - -pill - redpill, bluepill, watchpilled, goblinpilled, linguistpilled - -holic - Alcoholic, workaholic, enchiladaholic - -ussy - *All language is language!* - **What else?** --- ### What other words or morphemes are new lately? --- ### Wrapping up - Morphology is the study of how words are built - Words are made of Morphemes - Morphemes have different types - Words have different types - Words are made in many ways --- ### Next time - We'll finish up with morphology - Then we're going to look at a very strange language... **English** --- <huge>Thank you!</huge>