<!-- <section class="clicker"></section> ### What does 'gruntled' mean in the sentence "He's pretty gruntled with his work"? A) Happy with his work life B) Not unhappy with his work life C) Unhappy with his work life D) Something else E) I don't know what that word means at all ### Please be conscientious with exception and extension requests - If you just started the assignment shortly before asking for the extension, it's not happening - We drop an assignment for everybody, precisely to help you make a mistake without hurting too badly - I have a [whole site talking about how to make good and bad requests](https://savethevowels.org/gradechanges). - If you put in the work for us, we'll bend over backwards for you, but we have to be fair to everybody! --> ### Please visit office hours if you have questions! - IA office hours are often empty and sad! - If you don't 'get' phonology or IPA yet, go, let them help you - They have more datasets and they want to help! - Also check out the Video on the Bantu dataset - It's a good idea to review the lecture notes before sections --- ### Another Allophone Analogy <img class="r-stretch" src="phonology/minecraft_biome_dirt.jpg"> --- # Morphology: How words are built ### Will Styler - LIGN 101 --- ### Today's Plan - What is morphology? - Types of morphemes - Types of words - Building new words --- # What is Morphology? --- ## Morphology - The study of the shape and formation of words --- ### Words are often not monolithic - They're often made of smaller components - These components are called '**morphemes**' - The smallest piece of a word which expresses a meaning or function --- ## How do we know that English has a past tense marker like -ed? --- ### Form-Meaning Correspondences - We can detect these components by looking for correspondences between form and meaning - "If the same meaning keeps showing up with the same form in a word, that chunk of form must carry meaning!" --- ### Forming English Plurals - /kæt/ vs /kæts/ - /sit/ vs. /sits/ - /pat/ vs. /pats/ - "Huh, it sure looks like words with -s at the end are plural. '-s' must be a meaningful chunk!" - These recurring chunks that seem to have meaning are **morphemes** --- ### Many words are composed of many morphemes - *... and each morpheme's meaning contributes to the word's meaning!* - played (play-ed) - play + past tense - blacken (black-en) - black + ‘cause to become’ - unroll (un-roll) - reverse of ‘roll’ - depressurization (de-pressure-ize-ation) - undo + pressure + verbalizer + nominalizer --- ### There are two kinds of morpheme - Bound, and Free Morphemes --- ### Free Morphemes - Can stand on their own, do not have to attach to some other form - Cat, Show, Class, Panda, Walk, Purple --- ### Bound Morphemes - Can’t stand on their own, must be attached to some other morpheme - -ed, -s, -ing, -er, un-, -aholic, cran- --- ### Bound Morphemes (or 'Affixes') - **Prefixes** - Go before the root - Re-do, Un-screw, Over-come - **Suffixes** - Go after the root - walk-ed, cat-s, end-ing - **Infixes** - Go inside the root - Khmer: leun ‘fast’ -> l-b-eun ‘speed’ - **Circumfixes** - Go to either side of the root - German: spielen 'to play' -> ge-spiel-t 'played' --- <img class="r-stretch" src="ling_memes/postmalone.jpg"> --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### -or in 'refrigerator' is an example of an... A) Prefix B) Suffix C) Infix D) Circumfix E) Bush-fix --- ### -or in 'refrigerator' is an example of an... A) Prefix B) <correct>Suffix</correct> C) Infix D) Circumfix E) Bush-fix --- ### So, those are morphemes - There are many, *many* kinds of morphemes - Accomplishing many tasks - ... and they're the building blocks of *words* --- # Words --- ### Words are made up of morphemes - Sometimes just one, sometimes many - We'll spend some time there later today - ... but once constructed, words have many different types --- ### Lexical Categories - Also known as "Parts of Speech" - The *types* of words which occur in language --- ### Lexical Categories - **Nouns**: bike, car, cat, dog, tofu, dude, bling - **Verbs:** go, eat, talk, walk - **Adjectives:** lit, sweet, hot, cool, awesome - **Adverbs:** well, fast, slowly, easily - **Pre/postpositions:** with, from, on, in --- ### Lexical Categories (continued) - **Determiners:** the, a, that, this, those - **Pronouns:** she, he, him, her, it, I, you, they - **Conjunctions:** and, or, whenever, while - **Numeral:** one, twice, third - **Interjection:** ouch, tsk, damnit! --- ### How do we identify the different parts of speech? - These generalizations will work for English, but similar ones are available --- ### Nouns - Describe a person, place or thing - Can be singular or plural - book/books or car/cars, but not quickly/ *quicklys and beg/ *begs - red/reds? - Can be paired with a determiner (e.g. "I like the/a...") - I like the book/car/cat/show - \*I like the angry/rotate/beg/quickly --- ### Verbs - Can take tense marking in English - He rotates, she rotated - He learns, she learned - *He angrys, *He angryed - Can work with modals - I will teach, but *I will angry. - I can run, but *I can laptop. --- ### Adjectives - Comparative Constructions - Happy/Happier, but *teacher/teacher - Angry/Angrier, but *cat/cater - Superlative Constructions - Mad/Maddest, but *commute/commutest - Purple/Purplest, but *penguin/penguinest - Very/too Constructions - Very bad, very angry, very purple, very ugly - *Very teach, *Very cat, *Very linguist --- ### There are always some exceptions - Words can be used as other categories - "Wow, that's so fly" - "You look very... linguist today" - "I can't adult right now" - Words that don't fit the pattern - *She looks much eleganter - *I cutted the bush - *Three sheeps ran across the path --- ### Adverbs are hard - "the most nebulous and puzzling of the traditional word classes” - (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik, 1985) - They can modify anything non-nominal -  --- ### There are many flavors of adverbs - **Temporal**: Now, then, yesterday, always, tomorrow, next week - **Locative**: Here, there, abroad - **Sentence**: Perhaps, fortunately, honestly, frankly - **Manner**: Quickly, carefully, excitedly, beautifully - **Linking**: Therefore, thus, consequently - **Degree**: Very, too, extremely --- ### Prepositions - Indicate a semantic relationship between other entities - "Any relationship a squirrel can have with a tree" - Under, around, on top of, behind, near, adjacent to, below, above, in, on... - These don't change form in English --- ### Postpositions - Many languages instead use **postpositions**, which go after the thing(s) they modify but function like prepositions. - English doesn't have postpositions, but Turkish does! Çocuk-lar **bahçe-de** oyn-uyor. Kid-PL garden-in play-ing (PROG). 'Kids are playing in the garden.'' - About [half of the languages in WALS](https://wals.info/feature/85A#2/16.3/152.9) use postpositions - Inpositions and circumpositions are a thing too --- ### Pronouns - Substitute for noun phrases - "I saw the gal who Kati noticed was carrying a hamster in her backpack" - "I saw **her**" --- ### There are many kinds of pronouns - Personal Pronouns - 1st Person (I, me, mine), 2nd person (You, Yours), 3rd (she/her/hers, he/him/his, them/them/theirs, and others) - Indefinite Pronouns - Someone, everybody, nobody, any, anything, something - Interrogative Pronouns - "You saw who/what where/when?" - Relative pronouns - "I saw the girl **who** knew the cat **that** ate the bird **which** I was watching." - Demonstrative pronouns - This, these, that, those --- ### Determiners - Determiners mark and precede nouns - **The/an** interesting book - **Those** cookies - **Which** movie did you see? - Determiners don't vary in form --- ### Types of Determiners - **Possessive**: My, your, her, our, his, its, their - **Demonstrative**: This, these, that, those - **Interrogative**: which, what, whose - **Definite**: the - **Indefinite**: a/an --- ### My favorite determiner joke --- > 'The' and 'a' walk into a bar. 'A' says, "Hey, what's up bro, I haven't seen you in ages. Are you still marking noun phrases?" 'The' replies "Definitely!" --- ### Conjunctions - Used to link expressions - Sunny **and** warm - Red **or** blue? - He rolled over **while** I was petting him. --- ### Let's practice a bit --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### "The [tiny] dog quickly scurried between the buildings" A) Noun B) Verb C) Adjective D) Preposition E) Adverb --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### "The tiny dog [quickly] scurried between the buildings" A) Noun B) Verb C) Adjective D) Preposition E) Adverb --- <section class="clicker"></section> ### "The tiny dog quickly scurried [between] the buildings" A) Noun B) Verb C) Adjective D) Preposition E) Adverb --- ### All languages have grammatical categories - Although the lines between them can be blurrier or cleaner - ... and some languages don't necessarily use all of them --- ### We can group these categories into larger sets - Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs are **content words** - A very large set of words, which express new meanings - Pre/Postpositions, Determiners, Pronouns, Conjunctions are **function words** - A small, finite set of words which help combine other words --- ### Content and Function words change differently in languages - We very rarely gain new **Function words** (Pre/Postpositions, Determiners, Pronouns, Conjunctions) - We often gain new **Content words** (Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs) - Function words are a **closed class**, and content words are an **open class** --- ### New function words are pretty rare - "I didn't see the last Transformers movie **because** Michael Bay" (new preposition) - "I spent last night in the library doing homework **slash** looking at pictures of cats" (new conjunction) --- ### New content words are really common - Simp (Noun) - Stan (Verb) - Snatched (Adjective) - No cap (Adverb) - Slay (Verb) --- ### Wait, how do you create a new word, anyways? --- # Creating New Words --- ### We have many ways to create new words - We'll talk about a few of the common ones here - Be thinking of examples of each kind --- ### Compounding existing words together - Low key/High Key - Subtly/Overtly - Down bad - Sad and in need of particular sorts of attention - Fuckboy - Contemptible male womanizer worthy of little respect or consideration - Russian: Аризонский ядозуб (Arizonsky Yadozub) - яд - Poison, зуб - Tooth - 'Gila Monster' - Norwegian: *piggsvin* - *pigg* 'spike' and *svin* 'pig' - 'Hedgehog' - **What else?** --- ### Blending multiple words - Situationship (situation+relationship) - A poorly established romantic or sexual relationship - Frenemy (friend+enemy) - Somebody who is both a friend and an enemy - Mansplain (man+explain) - To condescendingly explain something - Skoden ('Let's go then') - **What else?** --- <img class="r-stretch" src="humorimg/drog.jpg"> --- [Croots](https://countrycroots.com/) <img class="r-stretch" src="humorimg/croots.png"> --- <img class="r-stretch" src="img/goths.jpg"> --- ### Borrowing words from other languages - Pupusa - From Nawat, via Spanish - Uber-cute - From German - Kawaii - From Japanese - Chocolate - From Nahuatl, 'xocolātl', bitter water - **What else?** --- ### Clipping existing words - Simp (from "simpering") - Pog/Poggers (from the Twitch "Pogchamp" emote) - Bougie/Boujee (clipped from "bourgeois/bourgeoisie") - Drip (from "dripping") - He caught an L (from "Loss") - **What else?** --- ### Changing the part of speech of an existing word - "I'm staying home **because** lazy."" - Conjunction -> Preposition - "I don't want to **adult** today" or "I forgot how to **Linguist** for a minute there" - Noun -> Verb - "I **stan** Joan Bybee" - Name (Proper Noun) -> Verb - "I can't believe they're doing that to their customers, the CEO might get **Luigied**" - Name (Proper Noun) -> Verb --- ### Other part of speech conversions? - English is really good at these! --- ### Creating Acronyms - *Acronyms are pronounceable!* - RAM - Random Access Memory - GOAT - 'Greatest of all time' - NASA - 'National Aeronautics and Space Administration' - WAP - 'Wireless Application Protocol' - **What else?** --- ### Creating Initialisms - *Initialisms are pronounced as a series of letters* - UCSD - University of California San Diego - UCB - University of California at Berkeley - ASL - 'age sex location' from 90's internet slang - IPA - International Phonetic Alphabet - Or India Pale Ale, to some weirdos - **What else?** --- ### Making up brand new words! - Bling - doggo - dongle - uwu - **What else?** --- ### Creating new senses for existing words - thick/thicc - Wide on one dimension / Aesthetically Ample - body count - "Number of people killed" vs. "Number of people slept with" - Nerf - Noun (toy) -> verb (to make something less powerful/difficult) - Cringe - A facial gesture or my sense of humor - Cap - A jaunty hat, or a shameful deception? - **What else?** --- ### A single spoken word can have *many* senses - Bank (of a river), bank (of America), bank (of a poker game), bank (shot in pool)... - This is called *polysemy* and we'll talk about this a lot down the road! --- ### Word creation methods - Compounding - Blending - Borrowing from other languages - Changing the part of speech - Clipping - Acronyms and Initialism - Making it up - Changing the meaning --- ### We can create affixes too - e- - esports, email, e-registration, e-conference - -pill - redpill, bluepill, watchpilled, linguistpilled - -core - hardcore, bardcore, cottagecore, clowncore - -ussy - [The American Dialect Society 2023 'Word of the Year'](https://www.americandialect.org/category/words-of-the-year) - *All language is language!* - **What else?** --- ### What other words or morphemes are new lately? --- ### Wrapping up - Morphology is the study of how words are built - Words are made of Morphemes - Morphemes have different types - Words have different types - Words are made in many ways --- ### Next time - We'll finish up with morphology - Then we're going to look at a very strange language... **English** --- <huge>Thank you!</huge>