Study Groups aren’t always a good idea!

Sometimes it can help to teach and learn from others
Don’t trust an answer you don’t fully understand
- “What’s the answer?” is dangerous, “Why is that the answer?” might save you.
Bad answers often ‘go viral’
- I can usually tell a study group by the patterns of weird errors
- “Somebody who was very wrong thought they were very right!”
The very best study group is office hours!

From last time…

Cool. So… how do we do phonemic analysis?

Step 0: Check for minimal pairs

If you have a minimal pair where the meaning changes, the sounds are different phonemes and your work is done. Always.

If you have a minimal pair, the sounds are different phonemes and your work is done.

Phonemic Analysis in four easy steps!

0: Check for Minimal Pairs, if none…
1: Collect all the environments the sound you’re interested in can occur in
2: State the distribution of the sounds.
3: Decide which allophone is the basic underlying form
4: Write rules to derive the other allophone(s) from it based on environment

0: Check for Minimal Pairs, if none…

Please. PLEASE.

1: Collect all the environments the sound you’re interested in can occur in

Write down what follows and precedes them
Use __ to help focus your brain on the context

2: State the distribution of the sounds.

“This one occurs before/after/around/near __”
Sometimes you can only describe where one happens
Test hypotheses!

3: Decide which allophone is the basic underlying form

Choose the one you can’t predict
Often it’s the “everywhere else” allophone

4: Write rules to derive the other allophone(s) from it based on environment

We’ll talk about writing rules more shortly

All sorts of environments trigger changes

Adjacent sound or sounds
Adjacent types of sound
Word boundaries
Syllable boundaries
Sounds or later earlier in the word
- This is a bit more rare, but really neat!

Phonological Rules

So, you’ve figured out that sounds are allophones of the same phoneme!

They’re in a complementary distribution
You can predict which one will show up based on the environment
How do I express that prediction to somebody else?

Phonological Rules

You describe the distribution of the allophones of a phoneme with phonological rules

Phonological Rule Format

“X turns into Y in environment Z”
“X -> Y” means “X turns into Y”
- -> is an arrow, but just easier to type.
Then the “/” which means “in the environment”
Then you add a blank, representing where the sound goes that’s getting transformed “__”
… And you position that blank relative to the conditioning environment.

If /n/ turns to an /ŋ/ before velar sounds…

/n/ -> [ŋ] / __ [velar sounds]
If it happened after velar sounds…
/n/ -> [ŋ] / [velar sounds] __

Other Symbols

“#” means “the boundary of a word”
“V” means “any vowel”
“C” means “any consonant”
“ø” means “Nothing”
- A /t/ being deleted is /t/ -> ø / …
- A /t/ being inserted is ø -> [t] / …

All of this is on your quick reference chart

Use it!

Some Phonological Rules

/t/ -> [t̪] /__[dental C]
/ej/ -> [ej:] / __[+voice]
/V/ -> [Ṽ] / __[nasal]
Bruce Wayne –> Batman / [Crime]__[Crime]

Often, you’ll describe entire groups of sounds in your rules

These groups will all share a ‘feature’
- ‘voiceless’, ‘velar’, ‘consonants’, ‘high vowels’
[stops] -> [fricatives] / __[back vowels]
Any group of sounds which share an articulatory feature can be called a ‘natural class’
We’ll talk more about these next time

You’ll hear about ‘allomorphs’

These are chunks of meaning (‘morphemes’) like the plural /s/ or past tense /d/ which change depending on nearby sounds
The English plural “s” can be [s], [z], or [ɪz]
- Cats, Dogs, and Dishes
The English past tense “ed” can be [t], [d], or [əd]
- “Walked”, “Buzzed”, “Rounded”

Here’s some practice data!

Are [l] and [n] allophones in Russian?

[l]	Gloss	[n]	Gloss
[lʲet]	‘year’	[sin]	‘son’
[lʲublʲu]	‘I love’	[nʲet]	‘no’
[slon]	‘elephant’	[maʃina]	‘car’
[dʲelal]	‘did’	[novʲi]	‘new’
[bʲeli]	‘white’	[rajon]	‘district’

Nyet! There’s a minimal pair!

If ‘lʲet’ and ‘nʲet’ differ in meaning and differ only by that segment, they can’t be allophones of the same phoneme!

Have some Spanish data with [d] and [ð]

[d]	Gloss	[ð]	Gloss
[daɲo]	‘damage’	[kaða]	‘each’
[pared]	‘wall’	[seða]	‘silk’
[red]	‘network’	[reðes]	‘networks’
[dentro]	‘inside’	[oða]	‘ode’
[vendo]	‘I sell’	[kaðena]	‘chain’

This one’s awesome (and allophonic!)

/d/ -> [ð] / V__V
Also, /b/ -> [β] / V__V
And, /g/ -> [ɣ] / V__V
“Voiced stops become fricatives at the same place of articulation between vowels”

Whoa. You’re doing Phonology!

Amazing!

Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language are awesome

Will Styler - LIGN 101

Today’s Plan

Review
Common Phonological Processes
Natural Classes
Let’s work some problems!

Reviewing Phonemic Analysis

A Phoneme

The Smallest Contrastive Unit of Sound in a language, in a contrastive distribution with other phonemes in the language
Changing phonemes changes meanings, and is perceptible (and often confusing!) for listeners of a language
Changing between phonemes creates…

Minimal Pairs

Two words with different meanings which differ by a single sound, indicating that those sounds are different phonemes
Think “boot” and “boon”, or “Niña” and “Piña”

Allophones of a Phoneme

Different surface-level expressions of the same phoneme, which alternate depending on the environment, in a complementary distribution
Which allophone you get is dictated by a rule
Think about [ej] and [ej:] or the many realizations of /t/ in English

Underlying Form

The sound which you decide is the ‘base’ form, from which rules create the other allophones
This is a strategic decision. Choose the form that lets you write the fewest, cleanest rules.

Allomorphs

Different versions of morphemes which are swapped predictably based on the sound environment.
Think the many plurals of English,

Free Variation

Where a group of sounds can replace each other, or not, and there’s no pattern, just chaos
Don’t worry about this for LIGN 101, we won’t give you Free Variation on homeworks or exams

Sounds have relationships with one another

They can be independent phonemes
They can be rule-governed allophones
They can chaotically switching free variation

Signs that two sounds represent different phonemes

Minimal pairs
Speakers hear them as ‘entirely distinct’
There’s no pattern besides changes in meaning which predicts their distribution

Signs that two sounds are allophones of the same phoneme

Changing the environment causes the sounds to alternate
The two sounds are predictable
- “Huh, this one always occurs in that environment!”
Speakers hear switching between them as ‘a different way of saying’ the same thing
- Or maybe don’t hear the difference at all

We write phonological rules to describe where allophones occur

These rules tell us when some or all of the forms occur

These rules have formatting conventions

‘_’ replaces the sound which is being changed
‘#’ means ‘word boundaries’
- Think of ‘cat’ as being like [#kæt#]
- _# is at the end of a word
- #_ is at the start of a word

Aside: Schwa is always an allophone of another vowel

Schwa (/ə/) is a reduced form of a different vowel
- Photograph, the, con’vict
Wedge (/ʌ/) is a specific vowel, with its own identity
- Not a reduced form of something else

So, now we know how alternations work!

… but why do alternations occur anyways?

Common Phonological Processes

So, now we know how to describe all these crazy rules…

… but what do languages actually DO with them?!

Four Common Types of Phonological Processes

Assimilation
Dissimilation
Insertion / Epenthesis
Deletion / Elision

1) Assimilation

When sounds change to become more like one another
This is basically Peer Pressure

Example: Nasal Place Assimilation

“Come on, we’re all being dental, you should try it too!”
“Pine thugs” -> [pajn̪ θʌgz]
“Pine guys” -> [pajŋ gajz]

Extreme Example: Nasal Harmony

When other phones in a word change to match the nasality of a nasal segment
- “If I’m going to be nasal, you’re all going to be nasal with me, damnit!”
- From Epena Pedee, in Rose, S. and Walker, R. (2011). Harmony Systems. In The Handbook of Phonological Theory (eds J. Goldsmith, J. Riggle and A. C. Yu). doi:10.1002/9781444343069.ch8
This also happens with vowels (e.g. Turkish) and elsewhere

Extreme Example: Vowel Harmony

When vowels change to match the other vowels in the word

Turkish has back-front vowel harmony

This means that vowels in a word must be either all back or all front

Turkish
Turkic - Turkey

Türkiye’-dir - ‘it is Turkey’

kapı-dır - ‘it is the door’
gül-dür - ‘it is the rose’
palto-dur - ‘it is the coat’
The vowel in the last syllable changes depending on the other vowels!

2) Dissimilation

When sounds change to become less like one another

Example: Liquid Dissimilation

The third rural bird juror murderer demurred.
“Colonel” is pronounced /kəɹnəl/
“Purple” comes from “purpure”
“surprise” /səɹpɹajz/ is usually /səpɹajz/, same with “berserk” and “february”
- This is deletion, done for dissimilation reasons

3) Insertion / Epenthesis

When a sound pops up to prevent an awkward or undesirable combination
Basically, showing up on a friend’s bad date

Example: Allomorphs with vowels

/dɪʃ/ + /s/ -> [dɪʃɪz]
/ɹat/ + /d/ -> [ɹaɾɪd]
The vowel ‘pops in’ to stop /ʃs/ and /td/ from being a thing
Languages also LOVE to epenthesize to stop VV

4) Deletion / Elision

When a sound is removed to stop an awkward or undesirable combination from occurring
Basically, uninviting your friend’s ex from the party

Example: Elision in English

Fifth, /fɪfθs/ -> [fɪθs]
Family, /fæmɪli/ -> [fæmli]
Natural, /næt͡ʃəɹəl/ -> [næt͡ʃɹəl]

Four Common Types of Phonological Processes

Assimilation (Peer Pressure)
Dissimilation (Rebellion)
Insertion / Epenthesis (Showing up on a friend’s date)
Deletion / Elision (Uninviting and unfriending)

There are other phonological processes

They’re all awesome
… but those four are super common

I’m humanizing these patterns for a reason

Before you start looking for a pattern, think about what’s changing, arising, or deleting, and what kinds of things might trigger it

If a language changes /d/ to [t] next to a voiceless C, that’s an example of…

Assimilation
Dissimilation
Insertion / Epenthesis
Deletion / Elision

If a language changes /d/ to [t] next to a voiceless C, that’s an example of…

Assimilation
Dissimilation
Insertion / Epenthesis
Deletion / Elision

What kinds of things trigger these changes?

Natural Classes

Plural Patterns in English

[z] after /j g d ɹ n w b m ð l i aj v u ow/
[s] after /t p k f θ/
[ɪz] after /tʃ dʒ s ʃ z/

A few reasons why listing sounds is no good

Lists are inefficient
Lists treat these phenomena as unmotivated
Lists disguise relationships among sounds
Lists aren’t graceful

Relationships among speech sounds are real

Phonology is not just algebra with symbols
Your IPA chart is not just an arbitrary scattering of sounds
Phonetic motivation for changes is often based on geography

Relationships can be described in many ways

… but the easiest way to start thinking is in terms of…

Natural Classes!

Let’s play a game!

One of these sounds is not like the other…

/t/ /k/ /p/ /s/

/s/ is the only fricative, all the rest are voiceless stops

/m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /b/

/b/ is the only oral sound, all the rest are nasal sounds

/b/ /a/ /ŋ/ /i/ /s/

/s/ is the only voiceless sound, all the rest are voiced sounds
/n/ is the only nasal sound, all the rest are oral

/l/ /s/ /ŋ/ /j/ /i/

/i/ is the only vowel, all the rest are consonants
/s/ is the only voiceless sound
/ŋ/ is the only nasal

/i/ /ɪ/ /ɛ/ /æ/ /ɔ/

/ɔ/ is the only back vowel, all the rest are front vowels
/ɔ/ is the only rounded vowel, all the rest are unrounded

/t/ /n/ /s/ /z/ /k/

/k/ is the only non-alveolar sound
/n/ is the only nasal sound, all the rest are oral

/p/ /t/ /k/ /b/

/b/ is the only voiced stop

Natural Class

A set of speech sounds in a given language that is able to be uniquely, completely, and succinctly described in terms of the shared phonetic (“natural”) properties of its members.

Natural Class Examples

Voiceless stops (English & Spanish): [p, t, k]
Voiced fricatives (English): [v, ð, z, ʒ]
Voiced fricatives (Spanish): [β, ð, ɣ]
Front vowels (English): [iː, ɪ, eɪ, ɛ, æ]
Front vowels (Spanish): [i, e]

Natural Classes in spoken languages are usually very IPA-like

Common rows, columns, or regions on the IPA chart
Anything where you can say ‘these share a feature in speech production’
Knowing the IPA is hugely helpful in phonology!

Phonological Rules typically involve natural classes

Natural classes can be the ‘targets’ of rules
- [p t k] are aspirated in English
Natural classes can ‘trigger’ rules
- [tʃ dʒ s ʃ z] trigger the [ɪz] plural
Very often, rules will act on groups of sounds which share features

So, as you’re writing your phonological rules…

Keep it classy!
- (Naturally)

Any questions?

Now, let’s try some datasets

What is the relationship between [j] and [w] here?

Falsificato	English	Falsificato	English
iji	blacksmith	uwu	small
kaju	monster	jaja	laughter
howaj	sacred	buwe	marker
owowi	surprise	jobowni	person

DO NOT LOOK AT THIS UNTIL YOU’VE WORKED THE PROBLEM

/j/ -> [w] / [rounded vowels]___

This implies that ‘/j/ -> [j] / everywhere else’
You don’t have to write the second part, it’s assumed

What is the relationship between [t] and [d] here?

Fakodata	English	Fakodata	English
taʃa	kitten	svitat	bird
pladna	tack	padme	princess
midna	companion	tatanka	buffalo
redmat	rhythm	krita	painter
sitka	tree	gjatzo	ocean

DO NOT LOOK AT THIS UNTIL YOU’VE WORKED THE PROBLEM

/t/ -> [d] / ___[nasals]

This implies that ‘/t/ -> [t] / everywhere else’

What’s the relationship between [d] and [j]?

Falsificato	English	Falsificato	English
iji	blacksmith	dadeja	paternity
jadas	talking	jowonda	vision
kaju	monster	sijesda	sleep
hodil	invest	buwed	markers
meda	technocrat	jajas	laughing

DO NOT LOOK AT THIS UNTIL YOU’VE WORKED THE PROBLEM

/d/ and /j/ are different phonemes

There’s a minimal pair!

What’s the relationship between [t] and [s] here?

Beeyessa	English	Beeyessa	English	Beeyessa	English
tint	dark	asint	less dark	intint	darker
tas	fast	asas	less fast	intas	faster
tust	terrifying	asust	less terrifying	intust	more terrifying
tontin	cute	asontin	less cute	intontin	more cute
tejki	nerdy	asejki	less nerdy	intejki	nerdier

DO NOT LOOK AT THIS UNTIL YOU’VE WORKED THE PROBLEM

/t/ -> [s] / V___

This is the best answer
[t] shows up in many more contexts than [s], so it’s underlying!
It is incorrect to say something like ‘/t/ becomes [s] in ’less’ words’.
- Phonology just worries about sounds

Next time

We’ll wrap up phonology, and talk about how words work

Thank you!

Study Groups aren’t always a good idea!

From last time…

Cool. So… how do we do phonemic analysis?

Step 0: Check for minimal pairs

If you have a minimal pair, the sounds are different phonemes and your work is done.

Phonemic Analysis in four easy steps!

0: Check for Minimal Pairs, if none…

1: Collect all the environments the sound you’re interested in can occur in

2: State the distribution of the sounds.

3: Decide which allophone is the basic underlying form

4: Write rules to derive the other allophone(s) from it based on environment

All sorts of environments trigger changes

Phonological Rules

So, you’ve figured out that sounds are allophones of the same phoneme!

Phonological Rules

Phonological Rule Format

If /n/ turns to an /ŋ/ before velar sounds…

Other Symbols

All of this is on your quick reference chart

Some Phonological Rules

Often, you’ll describe entire groups of sounds in your rules

You’ll hear about ‘allomorphs’

Here’s some practice data!

Are [l] and [n] allophones in Russian?

Nyet! There’s a minimal pair!

Have some Spanish data with [d] and [ð]

This one’s awesome (and allophonic!)

Whoa. You’re doing Phonology!

Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language are awesome

Will Styler - LIGN 101

Today’s Plan

Reviewing Phonemic Analysis

A Phoneme

Minimal Pairs

Allophones of a Phoneme

Underlying Form

Allomorphs

Free Variation

Sounds have relationships with one another

Signs that two sounds represent different phonemes

Signs that two sounds are allophones of the same phoneme

We write phonological rules to describe where allophones occur

These rules have formatting conventions

Aside: Schwa is always an allophone of another vowel

So, now we know how alternations work!

… but why do alternations occur anyways?

Common Phonological Processes

So, now we know how to describe all these crazy rules…

… but what do languages actually DO with them?!

Four Common Types of Phonological Processes

1) Assimilation

Example: Nasal Place Assimilation

Extreme Example: Nasal Harmony

Extreme Example: Vowel Harmony

Turkish has back-front vowel harmony

2) Dissimilation

Example: Liquid Dissimilation

3) Insertion / Epenthesis

Example: Allomorphs with vowels

4) Deletion / Elision

Example: Elision in English

Four Common Types of Phonological Processes

There are other phonological processes

I’m humanizing these patterns for a reason

If a language changes /d/ to [t] next to a voiceless C, that’s an example of…

If a language changes /d/ to [t] next to a voiceless C, that’s an example of…

What kinds of things trigger these changes?

Natural Classes

Plural Patterns in English

A few reasons why listing sounds is no good

Relationships among speech sounds are real

Relationships can be described in many ways

Natural Classes!

Let’s play a game!

One of these sounds is not like the other…

/t/ /k/ /p/ /s/

/m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /b/

/b/ /a/ /ŋ/ /i/ /s/

/l/ /s/ /ŋ/ /j/ /i/

/i/ /ɪ/ /ɛ/ /æ/ /ɔ/