LIGN 101 - Phonology II

### Study Groups aren't always a good idea!

- Sometimes it can help to teach and learn from others

- Don't trust an answer you don't fully understand

- "What's the answer?" is dangerous, "Why is that the answer?" might save you.

- Bad answers often 'go viral'

- I can usually tell a study group by the patterns of weird errors
	
	- "Somebody who was very wrong thought they were very right!"

- The very best study group is office hours!

---

### From last time...

---

## Cool.  So... how do we do phonemic analysis?

---

### Step 0: Check for minimal pairs

If you have a minimal pair where the meaning changes, the sounds are different phonemes and your work is done.  Always.

---

### If you have a minimal pair, the sounds are different phonemes and your work is done.

---

### Phonemic Analysis in four easy steps!

- 0: Check for Minimal Pairs, if none...

- 1: Collect all the environments the sound you’re interested in can occur in

- 2: State the distribution of the sounds.

- 3: Decide which allophone is the basic *underlying* form
	
- 4: Write rules to derive the other allophone(s) from it based on environment

---

### 0: Check for Minimal Pairs, if none...

- Please.  PLEASE.

---

### 1: Collect all the environments the sound you’re interested in can occur in

- Write down what follows and precedes them

- Use __ to help focus your brain on the context

---

### 2: State the distribution of the sounds.

- "This one occurs before/after/around/near __"
	
- Sometimes you can only describe where one happens

- Test hypotheses!

---

---

### 3: Decide which allophone is the basic *underlying* form

- Choose the one you can't predict

- Often it's the “everywhere else” allophone

---

### 4: Write rules to derive the other allophone(s) from it based on environment

- We'll talk about writing rules more shortly

---

### All sorts of environments trigger changes

- Adjacent sound or sounds

- Adjacent *types* of sound

- Word boundaries

- Syllable boundaries

- Sounds or later earlier in the word

- This is a bit more rare, but really neat!

---

# Phonological Rules

---

### So, you've figured out that sounds are allophones of the same phoneme!

- They're in a *complementary* distribution

- You can predict which one will show up based on the environment

- **How do I express that prediction to somebody else?**

---

### Phonological Rules

You describe the distribution of the allophones of a phoneme with phonological rules

---

### Phonological Rule Format

- "X turns into Y in environment Z"

- “X -> Y” means “X turns into Y”

- -> is an arrow, but just easier to type.

- Then the “/” which means “in the environment”

- Then you add a blank, representing where the sound goes that's getting transformed  “__”

- ... And you position that blank relative to the conditioning environment.

---

### If /n/ turns to an /ŋ/ before velar sounds...

- /n/ -> [ŋ]  / __ [velar sounds]

- If it happened after velar sounds...

- /n/ -> [ŋ]  / [velar sounds] __

---

### Other Symbols

- "#" means “the boundary of a word”

- “V” means “any vowel”

- “C” means “any consonant”

- "ø" means "Nothing"

- A /t/ being deleted is /t/ -> ø / ...

- A /t/ being inserted is ø -> [t] / ...

---

### All of this is on your quick reference chart

- Use it!

---

### Some Phonological Rules

- /t/ -> [t̪] /__[dental C]

- /ej/ -> [ej:] / __[+voice]

- /V/ -> [Ṽ] / __[nasal]

- Bruce Wayne --> Batman / [Crime]__[Crime]

---

### Often, you'll describe entire groups of sounds in your rules

- These groups will all share a 'feature'

- 'voiceless', 'velar', 'consonants', 'high vowels'

- [stops] -> [fricatives] / __[back vowels]

- Any group of sounds which share an articulatory feature can be called a 'natural class'

- We'll talk more about these next time

---

### You'll hear about 'allomorphs'

- These are chunks of meaning ('morphemes') like the plural /s/ or past tense /d/ which change depending on nearby sounds

- The English plural "s" can be [s], [z], or [ɪz]

- Cats, Dogs, and Dishes

- The English past tense "ed" can be [t], [d], or [əd]

- "Walked", "Buzzed", "Rounded"

---

# Here's some practice data!

---

### Are [l] and [n] allophones in Russian?

<center>
<style type="text/css">
.tg  {border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0;}
.tg td{font-family:Arial, sans-serif;padding:10px 5px;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;overflow:hidden;word-break:normal;border-color:black;}
.tg th{font-family:Arial, sans-serif;font-weight:normal;padding:10px 5px;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;overflow:hidden;word-break:normal;border-color:black;}
.tg .tg-fymr{font-weight:bold;border-color:inherit;text-align:left;vertical-align:top}
.tg .tg-0lax{text-align:left;vertical-align:top}
.tg .tg-xldj{border-color:inherit;text-align:left}
.tg .tg-0pky{border-color:inherit;text-align:left;vertical-align:top}
</style>
<table class="tg">
  <tr>
	<th class="tg-fymr">[l]</th>
	<th class="tg-0lax">Gloss</th>
	<th class="tg-fymr">[n]</th>
	<th class="tg-fymr">Gloss</th>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-xldj">[lʲet]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'year'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[sin]</td>
	<td class="tg-xldj">'son'</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-xldj">[lʲublʲu]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'I love'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[nʲet]</td>
	<td class="tg-xldj">'no'</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-xldj">[slon]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'elephant'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[maʃina]</td>
	<td class="tg-xldj">'car'</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-xldj">[dʲelal]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'did'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[novʲi]</td>
	<td class="tg-xldj">'new'</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[bʲeli]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'white'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[rajon]</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">'district'</td>
  </tr>
</table>
</center>

---

### Nyet! There's a minimal pair!

- If 'lʲet' and 'nʲet' differ in meaning and differ only by that segment, they can't be allophones of the same phoneme!

---

### Have some Spanish data with [d] and [ð]

<center>
<style type="text/css">
.tg  {border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0;}
.tg td{font-family:Arial, sans-serif;padding:10px 5px;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;overflow:hidden;word-break:normal;border-color:black;}
.tg th{font-family:Arial, sans-serif;font-weight:normal;padding:10px 5px;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;overflow:hidden;word-break:normal;border-color:black;}
.tg .tg-fymr{font-weight:bold;border-color:inherit;text-align:left;vertical-align:top}
.tg .tg-0lax{text-align:left;vertical-align:top}
.tg .tg-xldj{border-color:inherit;text-align:left}
.tg .tg-0pky{border-color:inherit;text-align:left;vertical-align:top}
</style>
<table class="tg">
  <tr>
	<th class="tg-fymr">[d]</th>
	<th class="tg-fymr">Gloss</th>
	<th class="tg-fymr">[ð]</th>
	<th class="tg-fymr">Gloss</th>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-xldj">[daɲo]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'damage'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[kaða]</td>
	<td class="tg-xldj">'each'</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-xldj">[pared]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'wall'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[seða]</td>
	<td class="tg-xldj">'silk'</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-xldj">[red]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'network'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[reðes]</td>
	<td class="tg-xldj">'networks'</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-xldj">[dentro]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'inside'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[oða]</td>
	<td class="tg-xldj">'ode'</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[vendo]</td>
	<td class="tg-0lax">'I sell'</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">[kaðena]</td>
	<td class="tg-0pky">'chain'</td>
  </tr>
</table>
</center>

---

### This one's awesome (and allophonic!)

- /d/ -> [ð] / V__V

- Also, /b/ -> [β] / V__V

- And, /g/ -> [ɣ] / V__V

- "Voiced stops become fricatives at the same place of articulation between vowels"

---

---

### Whoa.  You're doing Phonology!

- Amazing!

---

# Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language are awesome

### Will Styler - LIGN 101
              
---

### Today's Plan

- Review

- Common Phonological Processes

- Natural Classes

- Let's work some problems!

---

# Reviewing Phonemic Analysis

---

## A Phoneme

- The Smallest Contrastive Unit of Sound in a language, in a *contrastive distribution* with other phonemes in the language

- Changing phonemes changes meanings, and is perceptible (and often confusing!) for listeners of a language

- Changing between phonemes creates...

---

## Minimal Pairs

- Two words with different meanings which differ by a single sound, indicating that those sounds are **different phonemes**

- Think "boot" and "boon", or "Niña" and "Piña"

---

## Allophones of a Phoneme

- Different surface-level expressions of the same phoneme, which *alternate* depending on the environment, in a *complementary distribution*

- Which allophone you get is dictated by a rule

- Think about [ej] and [ej:] or the many realizations of /t/ in English

---

## Underlying Form

- The sound which you decide is the 'base' form, from which rules create the other allophones

- This is a *strategic* decision.  Choose the form that lets you write the fewest, cleanest rules.

---

## Allomorphs

- Different versions of morphemes which are swapped predictably based on the sound environment.

- Think the many plurals of English,

---

## Free Variation

- Where a group of sounds can replace each other, or not, and there's no pattern, just chaos

- **Don't worry about this for LIGN 101, we won't give you Free Variation on homeworks or exams**

---

### Sounds have relationships with one another

- They can be *independent* phonemes

- They can be *rule-governed* allophones

- They can *chaotically switching* free variation

---

### Signs that two sounds represent different phonemes

- **Minimal pairs**

- Speakers hear them as 'entirely distinct'

- There's *no pattern besides changes in meaning which predicts their distribution*

---

### Signs that two sounds are allophones of the same phoneme

- Changing the environment causes the sounds to *alternate*

- The two sounds are predictable

- "Huh, this one always occurs in that environment!"

- Speakers hear switching between them as 'a different way of saying' the same thing

- Or maybe don't hear the difference at all
	
---

### We write phonological rules to describe where allophones occur

- These rules tell us *when* some or all of the forms occur

---

### These rules have formatting conventions

- '\_' replaces the sound which is being changed

- '\#' means 'word boundaries'

- Think of 'cat' as being like [\#kæt\#]
	- \_\# is at the end of a word
	- \#\_ is at the start of a word
	
---

### Aside: Schwa is always an allophone of another vowel

- Schwa (/ə/) is a reduced form of a different vowel

- Photograph, the, con'vict

- Wedge (/ʌ/) is a specific vowel, with its own identity

- Not a reduced form of something else

---

### So, now we know how alternations work!

---

### ... but why do alternations occur anyways?

---

# Common Phonological Processes

---

### So, now we know how to describe all these crazy rules...

- ## ... but what do languages actually DO with them?!

---

### Four Common Types of Phonological Processes

- Assimilation

- Dissimilation

- Insertion / Epenthesis

- Deletion / Elision

---

### 1) Assimilation

- When sounds change to become more like one another

- This is basically Peer Pressure

- <img class="r-stretch" src="dalle/assimilation.jpg">

---

### Example: Nasal Place Assimilation

- "Come on, we're all being dental, you should try it too!"

- "Pine thugs" -> [pajn̪ θʌgz]

- "Pine guys" -> [pajŋ gajz]

---

### Extreme Example: Nasal Harmony

- When other phones in a word change to match the nasality of a nasal segment

- <img class="r-stretch" src="phonology/nasal_harmony.jpg">

- "If I'm going to be nasal, you're all going to be nasal with me, damnit!"

- <small>From Epena Pedee, in Rose, S. and Walker, R. (2011). Harmony Systems. In The Handbook of Phonological Theory (eds J. Goldsmith, J. Riggle and A. C. Yu). doi:10.1002/9781444343069.ch8 </small>
    
- This also happens with vowels (e.g. Turkish) and elsewhere

---

### Extreme Example: Vowel Harmony

When vowels change to match the other vowels in the word

---

### Turkish has back-front vowel harmony

This means that vowels in a word must be either *all back* or *all front*

<img class="r-stretch" width="600" src="lotwimg/turkishvowels.png">
---

<lang>Turkish</lang><br><ldata>Turkic - Turkey</ldata>

*Türkiye’-dir* - ‘it is Turkey’

* *kapı-dır* - ‘it is the door’

* *gül-dür* - 'it is the rose’

* *palto-dur* - ‘it is the coat’

* *The vowel in the last syllable changes depending on the other vowels!*

---

### 2) Dissimilation

- When sounds change to become *less* like one another

- <img class="r-stretch" width="600" src="dalle/dissimilation.jpg">

---

### Example: Liquid Dissimilation

- The third rural bird juror murderer demurred.

- "Colonel" is pronounced /kəɹnəl/
    
- "Purple" comes from "purpure"

- “surprise” /səɹpɹajz/ is usually /səpɹajz/, same with “berserk” and "february"

- This is deletion, done for dissimilation reasons

---

### 3) Insertion / Epenthesis

- When a sound pops up to prevent an awkward or undesirable combination

- Basically, showing up on a friend's bad date

- <img class="r-stretch" width="600" src="dalle/epenthesis_alternate.jpg">

---

### Example: Allomorphs with vowels

- /dɪʃ/ + /s/ -> [dɪʃɪz]

- /ɹat/ + /d/ -> [ɹaɾɪd]

- The vowel 'pops in' to stop /ʃs/ and /td/ from being a thing

- Languages also LOVE to epenthesize to stop VV

---

### 4) Deletion / Elision

- When a sound is removed to stop an awkward or undesirable combination from occurring

- Basically, uninviting your friend's ex from the party

- <img class="r-stretch" width="600" src="dalle/deletion.jpg">

---

### Example: Elision in English

- Fifth, /fɪfθs/ -> [fɪθs]

- Family, /fæmɪli/ -> [fæmli]

- Natural, /næt͡ʃəɹəl/ -> [næt͡ʃɹəl]

---

### Four Common Types of Phonological Processes

- Assimilation (Peer Pressure)

- Dissimilation (Rebellion)

- Insertion / Epenthesis (Showing up on a friend's date)

- Deletion / Elision (Uninviting and unfriending)

---

### There are other phonological processes

- They're all awesome

- ... but those four are super common

---

### I'm humanizing these patterns for a reason

- Before you start looking for a pattern, think about what’s changing, arising, or deleting, and what kinds of things might trigger it

---

### If a language changes /d/ to [t] next to a voiceless C, that's an example of...

A) Assimilation

B) Dissimilation

C) Insertion / Epenthesis

D) Deletion / Elision

---

### If a language changes /d/ to [t] next to a voiceless C, that's an example of...

A) <correct>Assimilation</correct>

B) Dissimilation

C) Insertion / Epenthesis

D) Deletion / Elision

---

### What kinds of things trigger these changes?

---

# Natural Classes

---

### Plural Patterns in English

- [z] after /j g d ɹ n w b m ð l i aj v u ow/

- [s] after /t p k f θ/

- [ɪz] after /tʃ dʒ s ʃ z/

---

### A few reasons why listing sounds is no good

- Lists are *inefficient*

- Lists treat these phenomena as *unmotivated*

- Lists *disguise relationships* among sounds

- Lists aren't *graceful*

---

### Relationships among speech sounds are real

- Phonology is not just algebra with symbols

- Your IPA chart is not just an arbitrary scattering of sounds

- Phonetic motivation for changes is often based on geography

---

### Relationships can be described in many ways

- ... but the easiest way to start thinking is in terms of...

---

# Natural Classes!

---

### Let's play a game!

---

### One of these sounds is not like the other...

## /t/ /k/ /p/ /s/

- /s/ is the only fricative, all the rest are voiceless stops

---

## /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /b/

- /b/ is the only oral sound, all the rest are nasal sounds

---

## /b/ /a/ /ŋ/ /i/ /s/

- /s/ is the only voiceless sound, all the rest are voiced sounds

- /n/ is the only nasal sound, all the rest are oral

---

## /l/ /s/ /ŋ/ /j/ /i/

- /i/ is the only vowel, all the rest are consonants

- /s/ is the only voiceless sound

- /ŋ/ is the only nasal

---

## /i/ /ɪ/ /ɛ/ /æ/ /ɔ/

- /ɔ/ is the only back vowel, all the rest are front vowels

- /ɔ/ is the only rounded vowel, all the rest are unrounded

---

## /t/ /n/ /s/ /z/ /k/

- /k/ is the only non-alveolar sound

- /n/ is the only nasal sound, all the rest are oral

---

## /p/ /t/ /k/ /b/

- /b/ is the only voiced stop

---

## Natural Class

A set of speech sounds in a given language that is able to be uniquely, completely, and succinctly described in terms of the shared phonetic (“natural”) properties of its members.
    
---

---

### Natural Class Examples

- Voiceless stops (English & Spanish): [p, t, k]

- Voiced fricatives (English): [v, ð, z, ʒ]

- Voiced fricatives (Spanish): [β, ð, ɣ]

- Front vowels (English): [iː, ɪ, eɪ, ɛ, æ]

- Front vowels (Spanish): [i, e]

---

### Natural Classes in spoken languages are usually very IPA-like

- Common rows, columns, or regions on the IPA chart

- Anything where you can say 'these share a feature in speech production'

- *Knowing the IPA is hugely helpful in phonology!*

---

### Phonological Rules *typically* involve natural classes

- Natural classes can be the 'targets' of rules

- [p t k] are aspirated in English
    
- Natural classes can 'trigger' rules

- [tʃ dʒ s ʃ z] trigger the [ɪz] plural
    
- Very often, rules will act on groups of sounds which share features

---

### So, as you're writing your phonological rules...

- ## Keep it classy!

- (Naturally)
	
---

## Any questions?

---

## Now, let's try some datasets

---

### What is the relationship between [j] and [w] here?

<table>
<thead>
  <tr>
    <th>Falsificato</th>
    <th>English</th>
    <th>Falsificato</th>
    <th>English</th>
  </tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
    <td>iji</td>
    <td>blacksmith</td>
    <td>uwu</td>
    <td>small</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>kaju</td>
    <td>monster</td>
    <td>jaja</td>
    <td>laughter</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>howaj</td>
    <td>sacred</td>
    <td>buwe</td>
    <td>marker</td>
  </tr>
   <tr>
    <td>owowi</td>
    <td>surprise</td>
    <td>jobowni</td>
    <td>person</td>
  </tr> 
</tbody>
</table>

---

### DO NOT LOOK AT THIS UNTIL YOU'VE WORKED THE PROBLEM

---

### /j/ -> [w] / [rounded vowels]___

- This implies that '/j/ -> [j] / everywhere else'

- You don't have to write the second part, it's assumed

---

### What is the relationship between [t] and [d] here?

<table>
<thead>
  <tr>
    <th>Fakodata</th>
    <th>English</th>
    <th>Fakodata</th>
    <th>English</th>
  </tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
    <td>taʃa</td>
    <td>kitten</td>
    <td>svitat</td>
    <td>bird</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>pladna</td>
    <td>tack</td>
    <td>padme</td>
    <td>princess</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>midna</td>
    <td>companion</td>
    <td>tatanka</td>
    <td>buffalo</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>redmat</td>
    <td>rhythm</td>
    <td>krita</td>
    <td>painter</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>sitka</td>
    <td>tree</td>
    <td>gjatzo</td>
    <td>ocean</td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

---

### DO NOT LOOK AT THIS UNTIL YOU'VE WORKED THE PROBLEM

---

### /t/ -> [d] / ___[nasals]

- This implies that '/t/ -> [t] / everywhere else'

---

### What's the relationship between [d] and [j]?

<table>
<thead>
  <tr>
    <th>Falsificato</th>
    <th>English</th>
    <th>Falsificato</th>
    <th>English</th>
  </tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
    <td>iji</td>
    <td>blacksmith</td>
    <td>dadeja</td>
    <td>paternity</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>jadas</td>
    <td>talking</td>
    <td>jowonda</td>
    <td>vision</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>kaju</td>
    <td>monster</td>
    <td>sijesda</td>
    <td>sleep</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>hodil</td>
    <td>invest</td>
    <td>buwed</td>
    <td>markers</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>meda</td>
    <td>technocrat</td>
    <td>jajas</td>
    <td>laughing</td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

---

### DO NOT LOOK AT THIS UNTIL YOU'VE WORKED THE PROBLEM

---

### /d/ and /j/ are different phonemes

- There's a minimal pair!

---

### What's the relationship between [t] and [s] here?

<table>
<thead>
  <tr>
    <th>Beeyessa</th>
    <th>English</th>
    <th>Beeyessa</th>
    <th>English</th>
    <th>Beeyessa</th>
    <th>English</th>
  </tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
    <td>tint</td>
    <td>dark</td>
    <td>asint</td>
    <td>less dark</td>
    <td>intint</td>
    <td>darker</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>tas</td>
    <td>fast</td>
    <td>asas</td>
    <td>less fast</td>
    <td>intas</td>
    <td>faster</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>tust</td>
    <td>terrifying</td>
    <td>asust</td>
    <td>less terrifying</td>
    <td>intust</td>
    <td>more terrifying</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>tontin</td>
    <td>cute</td>
    <td>asontin</td>
    <td>less cute</td>
    <td>intontin</td>
    <td>more cute</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>tejki</td>
    <td>nerdy</td>
    <td>asejki</td>
    <td>less nerdy</td>
    <td>intejki</td>
    <td>nerdier</td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

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### DO NOT LOOK AT THIS UNTIL YOU'VE WORKED THE PROBLEM

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### /t/ -> [s] / V___

- This is the best answer

- [t] shows up in many more contexts than [s], so it's underlying!

- It is incorrect to say something like '/t/ becomes [s] in 'less' words'.

- **Phonology just worries about sounds**

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### Next time

- We'll wrap up phonology, and talk about how words work

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<huge>Thank you!</huge>